Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Steep Turns — Theory

CASA Recreational Pilot License (Aeroplane) — CASA Sample Syllabus Lesson 18, Theory

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Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Turning in a car

Back in our lesson 04 turning, we used the analogy of turning in a car. Although you've probably never turned quite like this in a car, imagine:

  • What do you feel as you go around the corner?
  • In which direction does your body want to continue?
  • Why don't we turn planes like this?

A body in motion continues in a straight line at a constant speed, unless acted on by an external force — Isaac Newton's first law

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Turning in a car — continued

We then looked at an example of car turning that shares more similarities with turning in an aeroplane.

  • How do the forces felt in this corner differ from the previous one?
  • In what ways is this turn similar to the turns we do in an aeroplane? How is it different?
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Turning in a car — continued

This week, our car analogy is more like this:

That "pressure", or feeling of being "heavier" is the load factor. A load factor of 1 is exactly what we feel on a flat road or flying straight and level. A load factor of 2 feels as if gravity has doubled and we're twice as heavy.

  • In a car, what effect do you expect the load factor to have on the car?
  • What about in an aeroplane? What effect do you expect the load factor to have on an aeroplane turning like this?

The steeper and tighter we turn, the harder the wing has to work — and today we'll put a number on exactly how much harder.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Why do we even practise steep turns?

How can steep turns help us? Imagine flying up a narrow valley under cloud only to find a dead end requiring you to turn around. That's where knowing how you can get the smallest radius turn is going to be incredibly helpful. So:

  • Traffic and terrain avoidance — turning hard, deliberately, when you need to
  • Aircraft handling — a steep turn is an excellent test of coordination and attitude flying
  • Understanding the limits — feeling load factor, the higher stall speed, and how a turn can go wrong (the spiral dive) at a safe height, so it never surprises you low down
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Theory Lesson Overview

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Learning Objectives

By the end of this session, our aim is to be able to:

  • Explain how bank angle drives load factor, and why the stall speed increases in a steep turn
  • Describe how to fly a steep level turn and a steep descending turn, including the attitude and instrument picture
  • Explain the difference between a maximum-rate and a minimum-radius turn
  • Describe the cause, symptoms and recovery of a spiral dive
  • Describe how a sideslip works, its uses, and its precautions and limitations
  • Demonstrate First experience of steep turns, spiral-dive recovery and sideslipping in flight
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 1 — Revision and Load Factor

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

First — your workbook

Before we build on it, let's check the load-factor theory from your pre-lesson workbook:

  • Define load factor. What is it in straight and level flight?
  • In a level turn, what is the only thing that sets the load factor?
  • At 60° of bank, what is the load factor — and roughly how much higher is the stall speed?
  • Any questions on the workbook before we make it physical?
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Recall: what makes an aeroplane turn?

What actually turns the aeroplane? What is the name of the force that causes the turn?

When we bank, the lift force tilts with the wings. It now has:

  • a vertical component — holding us up against weight
  • a horizontal component — pulling us around the turn. It is this centripetal force that turns the aeroplane in an arc

It is the horizontal component of lift that turns the aeroplane. Rudder only keeps the turn balanced.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Recall: entering and holding a turn

From Lesson 4, the sequence to enter a medium turn — Lookout, then BBB:

  • Lookout — clear the airspace in the direction of turn
  • Bank — aileron into the turn, with coordinated rudder
  • Balance — keep the ball centred
  • Back-pressure — hold the nose up as lift tilts away from vertical

Then hold the turn with the same BBB — Bank with aileron, Balance with rudder, Back-pressure with elevator.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

A head-on diagram of an aeroplane banked in a level turn. The total lift force is drawn perpendicular to the wings, tilted with the bank. It is split into a vertical component of lift equal to and opposing weight, and a horizontal component of lift pointing into the turn labelled as the turning (centripetal) force. Weight is drawn straight down.

The forces in a level turn

In a level turn, the vertical component of lift must still balance weight — otherwise we climb or descend.

  • Vertical component of lift = Weight (otherwise we'll accelerate up or down)
  • Horizontal component of lift = the turning force

So as we bank more steeply, the lift has to be tilted further — yet its vertical part must still equal weight.

To keep the vertical component equal to weight at a steeper bank, the total lift must increase. That extra lift is the load factor loading the wings and airframe.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Watch the lift tilt as we bank

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

The load factor you feel raises the stall speed

A line graph. Horizontal axis labelled Angle of Bank in degrees from 0 to 90. Vertical axis labelled Stall speed multiplier, as a multiple of the level stall speed, starting at 1. A curve starts at times 1.0 at 0 degrees, rises gently to about times 1.19 at 45 degrees and times 1.41 at 60 degrees, then climbs steeply as it approaches 90 degrees. Marked points at 30, 45, 60 and 75 degrees.

From the workbook: load factor is set by bank angle alone in a level turn, and the stall speed rises with the square root of it.

Bank Load factor Stall speed E.g. 50 kt
0° 1.0 g × 1.00 50 kt
45° 1.41 g × 1.19 60 kt
60° 2.00 g × 1.41 71 kt

If your clean stall speed is 50 kt, at 60° of bank the wing stalls at about 71 kt — a speed that feels perfectly safe in level flight.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

The danger of unbalanced flight near the stall

Like any flight close to the stall speed, steep turns must be balanced — keep that ball centred:

  • In a skid (too much rudder into the turn), the inner wing slows and can reach the critical angle first — it stalls and drops into the turn
  • With the higher stall speed of a steep turn, an unbalanced stall can flick into a wing drop or spin entry very quickly
  • The recovery from a stall/spin needs height — which is why we do all of this at altitude

Balanced flight is not just tidy flying — near the stall it is what keeps a wing drop from becoming a spin.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 2 — Steep Level and Descending Turns

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Attitude flying in a steep turn

A steep turn is flown by attitude first, instruments second:

  • Set the bank against the natural horizon; set the nose on the horizon for level flight
  • Hold the picture — small, smooth corrections
  • If the nose is too low, the fix has an order: reduce bank first, then raise the nose, then re-establish the bank

Using elevator alone to raise a dropped nose in a steep turn just tightens the turn and loads the wing further. Reduce bank first.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

The instrument picture

Cross-check the instruments to confirm what the attitude is telling you:

Instrument In a steep level turn
Attitude indicator High bank angle; nose on the horizon
Altimeter Steady — the test of a good level turn
VSI Near zero if level; a climb or descent shows the nose is off
Airspeed Steady — held with power against the extra drag
Balance ball Centred — balanced throughout

Attitude sets the turn; the instruments confirm it. Don't fly the instruments — check them.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

The steep level turn

A steep turn is one at 45° of bank or more. Flying it well is similar to the medium turn — with some additions:

Phase What changes from a medium turn
Entry Lookout, then roll in; add power progressively as bank increases, to hold speed against the extra drag
Holding More back pressure to keep the nose on the horizon; balance with rudder
Nose drops Reduce bank first, raise the nose, then re-establish the bank
Recovery Anticipate the roll-out ~half the bank angle early; reduce power to cruise and ease forward to hold the nose position

Start at 45°, build to 60° — about the steepest a training aeroplane can sustain in level flight.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

The steep descending (gliding) turn

Flown at idle or low power — an excellent test of coordination:

  • Select a speed about 10 kt above the normal glide speed (check your type)
  • A steep nose-down attitude is needed to hold that speed at a steep bank
  • If the speed builds too high, reduce bank first, then adjust the attitude
  • Cross-check the instruments — the steep nose-down picture makes the gliding attitude hard to judge by eye
  • Recover: reduce bank, raise the nose to the correct glide attitude and speed

The steep gliding turn is where a mishandled recovery can slide into a spiral dive — which we'll see soon.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 3 — Maximum-Rate and Minimum-Radius Turns

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Maximum-rate and minimum-radius turns

Both turns are flown right at the stall buffet — the tightest the wing can turn for the power set:

  • Maximum-rate turn — highest bank the power allows, at the buffet: the fastest change of heading the aeroplane can achieve
  • Minimum-radius turn — slowest safe speed, at the buffet: the smallest circle it can fly. Take-off flap helps here (it lowers the stall speed) — but never exceed your flap limiting speed ()

Mostly a coordination exercise and a demonstration of the aeroplane's limits — and useful for extreme traffic avoidance.

CASA calls the "maximum rate turn" the turn done with greater throttle, banking to the buffet point. But is that really the turn that produces the maximum rate (degrees per second)?

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

But is it really maximum-rate vs minimum-radius?

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Flying at the buffet

The technique for both is the same:

  1. Lookout — clear the airspace thoroughly; visibility is poor in a steep turn
  2. Roll into a steep bank and add the power for the turn you want
  3. Increase back pressure until you feel the stall buffet (judder)
  4. Relax the back pressure just enough to stop the buffet — fly right at the threshold, not through it
  5. Any tendency to lose control: release back pressure and reduce bank with aileron

Fly the aeroplane to the buffet — never through it. The buffet is the edge; we ride it, we don't cross it.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 4 — The Spiral Dive

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

What is a spiral dive?

A spiral dive is a steep, descending, over-banked turn where the speed is increasing — the wing is not stalled, but the aeroplane is heading rapidly toward the ground and building load.

How it happens:

  • A steep turn where the nose is allowed to drop and the bank steepens
  • The pilot pulls back to raise the nose — which only tightens the turn and steepens the dive
  • Speed, rate of descent and 'g' all build together

A spiral dive is a nose-low unusual attitude — and pulling harder makes it worse. It must be recognised early.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Why applying backpressure makes a spiral dive worse

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Spiral dive versus spin — don't confuse them

Spiral dive Spin
Wing Not stalled Stalled
Airspeed High and increasing Low, steady (near stall)
Load factor High and building Low
Key danger Overspeed / overstress Continued rotation, height loss
Pitch action Do not pull until wings level Already stalled — unstall first

The most important difference: in a spiral dive the ASI is winding up. That rising airspeed tells you the wing is flying — so level the wings before you pull.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Recovering from a spiral dive

The recovery, in order:

  1. Power — close the throttle (idle) to stop the speed building
  2. Roll the wings level with coordinated aileron and rudder
  3. Ease out of the dive — smoothly raise the nose to the horizon
  4. Once under control — cruise power, resume normal flight

Wings level first, then ease out. Pulling while still banked just tightens the spiral and increases the 'g'. Pulling while leveling the wings increases the 'g' towards your lower rolling 'g' limit.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 5 — Sideslipping

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

What is a sideslip — and why use it?

A sideslip is a deliberately unbalanced manoeuvre: the aeroplane is banked one way with opposite rudder holding the nose from turning.

Its uses:

  • Increase the rate of descent without gaining speed — a steep, draggy way down
  • Lose height on an approach if you are high, especially with a flap failure or in an aircraft without flap
  • Correct for drift into wind on landing (an alternative crosswind technique)

Where have we already used a side-slip in our lessons so far?

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Flying a straight sideslip

The control inputs:

  1. Bank with aileron toward the lower wing (into wind, for a crosswind)
  2. Opposite rudder to stop the nose yawing — hold the heading you want
  3. Elevator to hold the airspeed — the nose attitude will look unusual
  • More bank → more rudder needed. The limit is full rudder — beyond it the nose yaws toward the low wing
  • Expect a high rate of descent and an unbalanced ball — that is the point of the manoeuvre
  • Recover: level the wings with aileron, centre the yaw with rudder, hold the glide speed with elevator

Guard the airspeed all the way through — especially in the recovery, where it is easy to let it decay.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Sideslip — precautions and limitations

Sideslipping has real limits — respect them:

  • Only where the flight manual permits — some types prohibit it, or prohibit it with flap extended. Check your POH / flight manual
  • Not at low altitude to learn or explore — a mishandled recovery, or a stall from the unusual attitude, needs height
  • Fuel — a prolonged sideslip on a low tank (with the low wing's tank selected) can cause fuel starvation
  • Airspeed — the unusual attitude can mislead; fly a known safe speed

The hazard of a sideslip at low altitude is real (CASA A6 4(j)) — practise it high, and only apply it low once it is solid.

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Waypoint 6 — Recap

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

What do you remember?

  • Explain what sets the load factor in a level turn, and what the stall speed does at 60° of bank
  • Describe the two things that change when you fly a steep level turn instead of a medium one
  • Explain the difference between a maximum-rate and a minimum-radius turn
  • Name the one instrument reading that tells a spiral dive from a spin, and list the recovery in order
  • Describe the three control inputs that set up a straight sideslip
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Summary — Full Lesson

Topic Key point
Load factor Set by bank angle alone in a level turn (60° = 2 g); stall speed rises with √(load factor) — 41% higher at 60°
Steep turns 45–60° bank; add power and back pressure; if the nose drops, reduce bank first
Max-rate / min-radius Both flown at the buffet — for a given limiting angle/load, both are at the buffet point (just above the stall). Flap helps the radius
Spiral dive Un-stalled, speed increasing; recover power–wings level–ease out, in that order
Sideslip Bank one way, opposite rudder, speed with elevator; only where the POH permits, and not low
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Objectives Check

Can you:

  • Explain what sets the load factor in a level turn, and calculate the stall speed at 60° of bank given a 50 kt clean stall?
  • Describe how to fly a steep level turn, and a steep descending turn?
  • Explain the difference between a maximum-rate and a minimum-radius turn?
  • Name the instrument that distinguishes a spiral dive from a spin, and give the recovery in order?
  • Describe the control inputs and the main limitations of a sideslip?
  • Feel ready to experience all of these in the air today?
Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Arrival

Steep Turns — Theory: Load Factor, Steep Turns, the Spiral Dive and Sideslipping

Questions?

Any questions before the pre-flight brief?

This lesson pairs with a pre-lesson workbook the student completes beforehand (self-study videos/articles + fill-in questions) covering load factor and the higher stall speed, knowing your aircraft's 'g' and system limits from the POH, and a preview of flying a steep turn. Confirm it's done at the start — this deck applies that theory rather than re-deriving it from scratch. This is a single, fairly long briefing (~40 minutes) spanning the whole 0.8 hr theory window: it starts by revising the medium turn (Lesson 4) and applying the workbook's load-factor idea, then moves into the manoeuvres the student will fly — the steep level and descending turns, maximum-rate and minimum-radius turns, recognising and recovering from a spiral dive, and sideslipping. Have the student's turning knowledge fresh; this brief assumes it. If time is short, trim the manoeuvre detail — it is reinforced again at the pre-flight brief and in the air.

Most of us have experience being pressed sideways when turning in a car (playing corners). What stops a plane from being able to turn like this is, effectively, that it doesn't have tyres gripping the ground - instead it's slipping through the air.

It's similar in that we're banking around the corner, and so a force perpindicular to our vehicle is now helping the turn. It's different in that with the car, that "Lift/Turning" force is being provided by the *ground*. In an aeroplane, it needs to be provided by the lift of the wings. Interestingly, railroad tracks and car roads do actually do this to some degree, just nowhere near as obviously.

Just as the ground (and car suspension) has to provide the extra centripetal force to turn the car in addition to holding the car level, in an aeroplane it is the *wing* that provides this extra centripetal force in addition to holding the aeroplane level, for a level turn. To do so, the wing requires a *higher angle of attack* for the same speed to stay level (just as it would in straight and level flight with extra weight). This therefore increases the stall speed, just like extra weight would. The key seed to plant: the extra weight you feel is not just a sensation — the wing genuinely has to produce more lift, and that has real consequences for how fast the aircraft will stall. The student has already met the numbers in the workbook; today we make them physical.

CASA underpinning knowledge: operational circumstances where steep turns are required [A5 4(a)]; hazards when performing performance manoeuvres [A3 4(g)]. Frame the lesson positively: we go up high and explore the edges of normal flight on purpose, so that the sensations and the recovery actions are familiar rather than alarming if they ever happen for real.

About 38 minutes, spanning the full 0.8 hr theory window — the pre-lesson workbook has already carried the load-factor and limits theory, which is why the aerodynamics section is a revision-and-apply rather than a full derivation. The first two waypoints are the "why" (load factor, higher stall speed); the last four are the manoeuvres that apply it. If time is short, the manoeuvre detail can be trimmed here and reinforced at the pre-flight brief and in the air.

These map to CASA lesson-18 underpinning knowledge A5 4(b) (load factor, 'g' and stall speed) and elements A5.3 (turn aeroplane steeply), A6.6 (recover from nose-low unusual attitudes — spiral dive), and A5.4 (sideslip aeroplane, where the flight manual permits). The strikethrough on the final objective is deliberate: this is the student's first exposure to these manoeuvres, not an assessed competency.

Click Direct-To to arrive at Revision and Load Factor.

This is the workbook revision element — confirm it was actually completed and clear up anything that didn't land before moving on. If it wasn't done, take a few extra minutes here to cover the load-factor / stall-speed content verbally rather than skip it — the whole lesson rests on it. Answers to listen for: load factor = lift ÷ weight; 1 g level; in a level turn it is set by bank angle alone; 60° = 2 g and the stall speed is ~41% higher.

Ask first, let the student commit to an answer, then reveal. Revision from Lesson 4 (Turning). Use a physical model here if you have one. A common misconception is that the rudder turns the aeroplane. It doesn't — the horizontal component of lift is the centripetal force. The rudder's job is to balance the turn (counter the aileron drag on entry and keep the balance ball centred), not to yaw the aircraft around.

This is straight revision but it is the backbone of everything today. If the student is shaky on the entry sequence or on what each control does during the turn, firm it up now before we steepen the bank. Emphasise lookout: about 85% of a visual turn should be spent looking out. Students frequently sacrifice lookout for accuracy.

PHAK Ch 5 (Aerodynamics of Flight) — Forces in Turns. This is the canonical head-on force diagram, and the live payoff for the workbook reading. The steeper the bank, the more the total lift vector must grow so that its shrinking vertical component still holds weight. Walk it slowly with the interactive on the next slide.

Interactive demo (four-forces with banking). Suggested script: - Start level, head-on view. Note lift (L) balances weight (W). - Bank to 30 and note that Lift decreases at first (as the aeroplane accelerates downwards) before being restored to match weight as it settles in the descent. - Increase the attitude to 5, power to 70 to restore straight and level. - Gradually bank to 45 degrees. Point out the aeroplane starts to sink — the vertical component of lift again temporarily reduces before settling into a descent. - To restore level flight, add power to 100% and raise attitude to about 10 degrees. - Gradually bank to 60 degrees and let it settle - harder to maintain level flight. - Have the student recall, from their workbook, before you reveal it: at 60 degrees of bank, how much bigger is the total lift than weight? (Answer: twice — 2 g.)

CASA A5 4(b). This is the single most important number in the lesson, and the student met it in the workbook (Boldmethod / Simulated Checkride) — this slide confirms and anchors it, it does not re-derive it. Worked example to say aloud: roll into a hard 60-degree turn at 75 kt and you have only a ~5 kt margin — pull harder to tighten the turn and you close it entirely. This is exactly the base-to-final accident scenario, and why we practise steep turns and their stall high up. The graph plots stall-speed multiplier = 1 / sqrt(cos(bank)); our own Desmos plot, https://www.desmos.com/calculator/fu2pfd1szr. Also recall from the workbook: the student looked up their own aircraft's 'g' limits and flap limiting speed (V_FE) from the POH — keep those in mind through the manoeuvres.

CASA A5 4(g) and A5 4(b): dangers of unbalanced flight. HF/NTS: undesired aeroplane state — prevention, identifying, controlling [NTS2 4(e)]. Connect to Lesson 5's coordinated-flight slide and the skid-into-the-turn hazard. This is the mechanism behind the classic base-to-final stall/spin. We are practising the ingredients (steep bank, back pressure, higher stall speed) deliberately and safely so they are understood.

Click Direct-To to arrive at Steep Level and Descending Turns.

FIM background: in steep turns, using the elevator to control height also tightens the turn; the correct order is to reduce bank, raise the nose, then re-establish bank. This is a very common student fault and a direct precursor to the spiral dive we cover later. About 85% of the turn is still lookout — do not let the student bury their head chasing the numbers. This is also the sight picture the student previewed in the workbook video.

CASA HF/NTS: use of checklists and standard operating procedures [NTS2 4(h)]; situational awareness through a disciplined lookout-then-instrument scan. In the steep descending turn the instrument cross-check becomes more important, because the steep nose-down attitude makes the visual gliding attitude hard to judge.

FIM background (Turning, Steep Level Turns): enter as for a medium turn but increase power progressively as bank increases; greater back pressure is needed; if the nose sinks, reduce bank before raising the nose; on recovery, power back to cruise and a positive forward movement of the control column is needed. The maximum sustainable bank is set by the power available — beyond about 60 degrees most training aeroplanes cannot hold height. Demonstrate 45 degrees first; build to 60 as the student progresses.

FIM background (Turning, Steep Descending Turns): fly ~10 kt above normal glide speed; if the speed increases too much, first reduce the angle of bank then adjust; interpret the steep nose-down attitude and high rate of descent from the instruments. On a prolonged glide, clear the engine (open to cruise power briefly) about every 1,000 ft. This slide is the natural bridge into the spiral dive: an over-banked, nose-low gliding turn with the speed building is a spiral dive in the making.

Click Direct-To to arrive at Maximum-Rate and Minimum-Radius Turns.

FIM background (Maximum Rate and Minimum Radius Turns): the aircraft is flown at the threshold of the stall — feel the judder, then relax back pressure just enough to stop it. Full power gives the maximum rate (?) — this is called the maximum rate turn; a reduced power setting with take-off flap gives the minimum radius (do not overspeed the flap). Recovery is as from a steep level turn. The V_FE reference ties back to the workbook: the student looked up their own aircraft's flap limiting speed.

Pin the initial 70kt 45 degree. Ask: How can we decrease our radius? (Note: assume that 60 degrees is our limit for level flight) - maybe slowing down? Do so until buffet - maybe banking? Do so until buffet - then increase speed to continue to 60 deg. Ask: How can we increase our rate of turn? - maybe increasing our speed? - no, on it's own it doesn't help - maybe banking? Yes - do so until buffet - then increase speed to continue to 60 deg. If we're limited by a maximum angle (either because of the limiting load factor, or because we can't sustain level flight), then the maximum-rate *and* minimum radius will always be found at the same place: the buffet point just above the stall. Even adding flaps so we can slow down for a smaller radius still increases our rate yet again. So it is really one technique: slowest speed above the stall for a given angle/load.

CASA HF/NTS: undesired aeroplane state — prevention, identifying, controlling [NTS2 4(e)]. A3 4(g): hazards when performing performance manoeuvres. Reassuring framing: the buffet is expected and normal in this exercise — it is the wing telling us we are at the limit. The skill is holding the aircraft exactly there. If it stalls or a wing drops, the recovery is the same one practised in Lesson 5.

Click Direct-To to arrive at The Spiral Dive.

CASA A6.6: recover from nose-low unusual attitudes (spiral dive recognition and recovery). This connects directly to the attitude-flying slide: using elevator alone to raise a dropped nose in a steep turn tightens the turn — the exact entry to a spiral dive. Plant the distinction now, cover it fully in two slides: a spiral dive is fast and un-stalled; a spin is slow and stalled. They look alarming in similar ways but need opposite pitch responses.

First show a 30 degree angle of bank, and how adding backpressure predominently increases lift. Next show a 60 degree angle of bank, and how adding backpressure now predominently increases the centripital force. By pulling back in a steep turn, we are *increasing* the centripital force, tightening the spiral. We need to straighten up before pulling back to avoid this.

This comparison is the crux of the spiral-dive brief. The instinctive response to a nose-low, ground-filling-the-windscreen picture is to pull — which is correct for neither, but is actively dangerous in a spiral dive because the wing is not stalled and pulling adds 'g' at high speed. The single discriminator the student can read instantly: airspeed. Spiral = fast and increasing. Spin = slow.

Use the 3D physical model for demonstrating the spiral dive. CASA A6.6 (e,f,g): identify the nose-low unusual attitude; recover by adjusting pitch, bank and power; apply controlled corrective action within limits. The "within limits" is why the pull is smooth, not snatched — recall the rolling-'g' limit the student looked up in the workbook: it is lower than the symmetrical limit, and we are fast here. Memory order: Power, Bank, Pitch — throttle closed, wings level, then ease out. This is the standard nose-low unusual-attitude recovery.

Click Direct-To to arrive at Sideslipping.

CASA A5.4: sideslip aeroplane (where the flight manual permits). FIM background (Sideslipping): a sideslip is a banked attitude with the natural tendency to yaw reduced or prevented by rudder; practical applications are the sideslip into wind and the slipping turn. Note the link back to Lesson 19 (Crosswind Circuits): the wing-low crosswind technique is a sideslip held into the flare.

FIM background (Effect of controls during a sideslip): bank and apply opposite rudder; keep bank constant and hold speed with elevator; the limiting factor is usually rudder — at full rudder, further bank yaws the nose toward the lower wing. Common fault: too much rudder for the bank; and losing speed in the recovery. The interactive four-forces / physical model can help show the banked-but-not-turning attitude if useful.

CASA A5 4(c): contents of the flight manual and POH. A6 4(j): hazard of sideslip at low altitude. FIM airmanship: comply with flight manual limitations; beware fuel starvation in a prolonged sideslip with low fuel and the low-wing tank selected. This is the risk-elevated content for this waypoint. Name the hazard plainly (low-altitude sideslip, prohibited configurations) without overstating it — the manoeuvre is safe when flown within the manual's limits and at height.

Click Direct-To to arrive at the recap.

Question-list recall element — the filled summary table on the next slide is the answer key. Each question uses a Bloom's action verb and a concrete anchor. TODO: consider a lesson-specific creative recap in place of, or alongside, this table — e.g. hand the student the 3D model and have them "fly" a 60-degree level turn narrating the forces and control inputs; or a "spot the difference" scenario where you describe an unusual attitude (airspeed high and rising, steep bank, nose low) and the student calls spiral vs spin and the recovery. A creative activity here is more memorable than the table.

The top row ties the whole lesson back to the workbook's load-factor theory — the thread through every manoeuvre. Note the smooth, not snatched, control inputs in the spiral-dive recovery are set by the rolling-'g' limit the student looked up in the workbook.